Location: Asia

Area: 1.56 million sq km
Population: 2.6 million
People: Khalkh Mongols (86%), Kazaks (2%), Chinese (2%), Russian (2%), about a dozen other ethnic groups
Language: Mongolian, Russian, Chinese
Religion: Tibetan Buddhism, Muslim, Shamanism
Government: parliamentary

GDP: US$1 billion
GDP per capita: US$390
Annual Growth: 3.5%
Inflation: 44%
Major Industries: Copper, livestock, cashmere, wool
Major Trading Partners: Russia, China, Japan, US

Economic summary: GDP/PPP (2003 est.): $4.877 billion; per capita $1,800. Real growth rate: 5%. Inflation: 1.5% (2002 est.). Unemployment: 4.6% (2002). Arable land: 1%. Agriculture: wheat, barley, potatoes, forage crops; sheep, goats, cattle, camels, horses. Labor force: 1.4 million (2001); primarily herding/agricultural. Industries: construction materials, mining (coal, copper, molybdenum, fluorspar, and gold); oil; food and beverages, processing of animal products. Natural resources: oil, coal, copper, molybdenum, tungsten, phosphates, tin, nickel, zinc, wolfram, fluorspar, gold, silver, iron, phosphate. Exports: $524 million (f.o.b., 2002 est.): copper, livestock, animal products, cashmere, wool, hides, fluorspar, other nonferrous metals. Imports: $691 million (c.i.f., 2002 est.): machinery and equipment, fuels, food products, industrial consumer goods, chemicals, building materials, sugar, tea. Major trading partners: China, U.S., Russia, South Korea, Germany, Japan.

Communications: Telephones: main lines in use: 104,100 (1999); mobile cellular: 110,000 (2001). Radio broadcast stations: AM 7, FM 9, shortwave 4 (2001). Radios: 155,900 (1999). Television broadcast stations: 4 (plus 18 provincial repeaters and many low powered repeaters) (1999). Televisions: 168,800 (1999). Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 5 (2001). Internet users: 40,000 (2002).

Transportation: Railways: total: 1,815 km (2002). Highways: total: 49,250 km; paved: 1,724 km; unpaved: 47,526 km (2000). Ports and harbors: none. Airports: 50 (2002).

International disputes: none.

Geography

Mongolia lies in central Asia between Siberia on the north and China on the south. It is slightly larger than Alaska.

The productive regions of Mongolia—a tableland ranging from 3,000 to 5,000 ft (914 to 1,524 m) in elevation—are in the north, which is well drained by numerous rivers, including the Hovd, Onon, Selenga, and Tula. Much of the Gobi Desert falls within Mongolia.

Government

Parliamentary republic now in transition from Communism.

History

Nomadic tribes that periodically plundered agriculturally based China from the west are recorded in Chinese history dating back more than 2,000 years. It was to protect China from these marauding peoples that the Great Wall was constructed around 200 B.C. The name Mongol comes from a small tribe whose leader, Ghengis Khan, began a conquest that would eventually encompass an enormous empire stretching from Asia to Europe, as far west as the Black Sea and as far south as India and the Himalayas. But by the 14th century, the kingdom was in serious decline, with invasions from a resurgent China and internecine warfare.

The State of Mongolia was formerly known as Outer Mongolia. It contains the original homeland of the historic Mongols, whose power reached its zenith during the 13th century under Kublai Khan. The area accepted Manchu rule in 1689, but after the Chinese Revolution of 1911 and the fall of the Manchus in 1912, the northern Mongol princes expelled the Chinese officials and declared independence under the Khutukhtu, or “Living Buddha.”

In 1921, Soviet troops entered the country, and facilitated the establishment of a republic by Mongolian revolutionaries in 1924. China also made a claim to the region, but was too weak to assert it. Under the 1945 Chinese-Russian Treaty, China agreed to give up Outer Mongolia, which, after a plebiscite, became a nominally independent country.

Allied with the USSR in its dispute with China, Mongolia began mobilizing troops along its borders in 1968 when the two powers became involved in border clashes on the Kazakh-Sinkiang frontier to the west and at the Amur and Ussuri Rivers. A 20-year treaty of friendship and cooperation, signed in 1966, entitled Mongolia to call upon the USSR for military aid in the event of invasion.

In 1989, the Mongolian democratic revolution began, led by Sanjaasurengiyn Zorig. Free elections held in Aug. 1990 produced a multiparty government, though it was still largely Communist. As a result, Mongolia has moved only gradually toward a market economy. With the collapse of the USSR, however, Mongolia was deprived of Soviet aid. Primarily in reaction to the economic turmoil, the Communist Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party (MPRP) won a significant majority in parliamentary elections in 1992. In 1996, however, the Democratic Alliance, an electoral coalition, defeated the MPRP, breaking with Communist rule for the first time since 1921. But in 1997, a former Communist and chairman of the People's Revolutionary Party, Natsagiyn Bagabandi, was elected president, further strengthening the hand of the antireformers.

Disagreement within Mongolia's ruling coalition over the pace and direction of market reforms in April 1998 caused a shakeup that thrust Tsakhiagiyn Elbegdorj, a pro-reform politician, into the prime minister's position. But parliamentary cross-purposes led to his resignation, and a succession of prime ministers followed.

Former Communist Natsagiyn Bagabandi was reelected president in 2001. In 2004 elections, however, the MPRP was dealt a stunning blow, reducing its number of seats in parliament from 72 to 36. The opposition Motherland Democratic Coalition took 34 seats, and in August, its leader, Tsakhiagiyn Elbegdorj, was appointed prime minister to lead a coalition government.

Attractions

Ulaan Baatar

Often called UB by foreigners, Mongolia's sleepy capital has the look and feel of a neglected 1950s European city. The old Soviet cars and buses are slowly being replaced by newer Japanese versions, but cows still wander the roads, goats sift through the rubbish, and traditionally dressed men and women mingle on the city's streets with Mongolia's nouveaux riche.

Built along the Tuul river and surrounded by lovely mountains, Ulaan Baatar is dominated by communist style highrise apartment buildings, but about 250,000 locals also live in the extended ger suburbs on the outskirts of town. The felt gers are protected from the winds, which are especially fierce in spring, by wooden fences. The topography makes for good hillside views overlooking the city, but during winter the view is obscured by pollution and temperatures are painfully freezing.

The centre of the city is Sükhbaatar Square. From this spot in July 1921 Damdiny Sükhbaatar, the 'hero of the revolution', declared Mongolia's independence from the Chinese. The square was also where the first of the protests which eventually led to the fall of communism were held in 1989. On normal days, it's a serene place where only pigeons and peddling photographers do much of anything. The grey State Parliament House faces the square, as does the tall, modern Palace of Culture, a useful landmark containing the impressive Mongolian Art Gallery and other odes to Mongolian culture.

One block north-west of the square, the Museum of Natural History is worth a visit if you're heading into the countryside. There are exhibits about Mongolia's geography, flora and fauna and some displays about recent Mongolian history. More impressive are the 2 complete dinosaur skeletons which were found in the Gobi - the giant flesh eating Tarbosaurus and its first cousin, the little duckbilled plant-eating Saurolophus. The Zanabazar Museum of Fine Arts has an excellent collection of paintings, carvings and sculptures, including many by the revered sculptor, artist and Buddhist, Zanabazar. It also contains other rare religious exhibits, such as thangkas (cloth paintings) and Buddhist statues.

Around the start of the 19th century, over 100 Tibetan Buddhist süm (temples) and khiid (monasteries) served a population of about 50,000 in Ulaan Baatar. Most of the temples and monasteries, along with their belongings, were destroyed during the Stalinist purges of the late 1930s. Gandantegchinlen Khiid survived because the communists kept it as a showcase to impress foreigners. Roughly meaning 'the great place of complete joy', Gandan is one of Ulaan Baatar's most amazing sights. Within it are several glorious temples adorned with gold and jewels. The 150 or so monks who live here do their bit to bring the temples back to life with plenty of chanting and ceremonialising.

The Winter Palace of Bogd Khaan was also spared. Built between 1893 and 1903, it's where Mongolia's 8th Bogd Khaan (Living Buddha) and last king, lived for 20 years. Depending on which version of history you read, the Bogd Khaan either enjoyed irreverent pleasures of the flesh and bottle and was blind with syphilis, or he was a great visionary and nationalist. When he died in 1924, the Soviet-led communist government of Mongolia prohibited any future reincarnations, so there were no further Mongolian Buddhist leaders. The 6 temples on the grounds of the Winter Palace contain collections of gifts given the Bogd Khaan, including an extraordinary array of stuffed animals.

Four Holy Peaks

The 4 peaks surrounding Ulaan Bataar are considered holy. The Tsetseegum, Chingeltei, Songino Khairkhan and Bayansurkh mountains correspond, more or less, to the 4 points on the compass. These peaks are tremendous for hiking, and they're popular for their forests of larch trees, grasslands and stunning bird and animal life, including ibex and sable. Tsetseegum Uul is easily the most magnificent. At 2260m (7400ft), it's the highest point in the Bogdkhan Uul range, which dominates the skyline to the south of Ulaan Baatar. The trip is only sensible from the beginning of June to the end of September and a permit is required, which you can get at the entrance gate to the Bogdkhan National Park, about 15km (9mi) south of Ulaan Baatar.

The Manzshir Khiid Route to Tsetseegum from the mountain's southern side is the easiest. Along it there are broad meadows, fields of rocky boulders and ovoos (pile of stones left as offerings to the gods). The Zaisan Route is the most scenic but also the most difficult, taking about 6 hours each way along precariously steep boulders. Anyway you go, along with the permit, you'll need a compass, plenty of water, food and cold weather gear, as sudden thunderstorms and icy winds can come out of nowhere even in summer.

Kharkhorin (Karakorum)

In 1220 Genghis Khan decided to build the capital city of his vast Mongolian empire at Karakorum. Building was completed by his son, Ogedai Khan, after Genghis' death, but Karakorum served as the capital for only 40 years before Kublai Khan moved it to what is now Beijing. Following the move, and the subsequent collapse of the Mongolian empire, Karakorum was abandoned and then later destroyed by hordes of Manchurian soldiers. Whatever was left was used to help build the Erdene Zuu monastery in the 16th century, which itself was badly destroyed during the Stalinist purges. The modern and dreary town of Kharkhorin was built on the same spot.

Erdene Zuu (Hundred Treasures) was the first centre of Lamaism in Mongolia. The monastery was started in 1586 but not entirely finished until 300 years later. It has between 60 and 100 temples, about 300 gers set up inside the walls and, at its height, up to 1000 monks in residence. Like Karakorum, the monastery was abandoned and then vandalised by invading Manchurians. All but 3 of the temples in Erdene Zuu were destroyed by Stalin's thugs and an unknown number of monks killed. The monastery remained closed until 1965 when it was permitted to reopen as a museum, but not as a place of worship. Only with the collapse of communism did the monastery become active again.

Today it retains much of its former glory. Enclosed in an immense walled compound, the 3 temples within are dedicated to the 3 stages of Buddha's life: as a child, adolescent and adult. The main, central temple is called the Zuu of Buddha and has statues of Buddha as a child. Outside the monastery walls are 2 'turtle rocks'. Four of these once marked the boundaries of ancient Karakorum. More, ahem, stimulating is the phallic rock hidden in a small valley among the hills overlooking the monastery, about 30 minutes away on foot. According to local tradition, all women who visit the rock must have sex within 24 hours.

Kharkhorin is 370km (230mi) south-west of Ulaan Baatar. Between July and September there are flights between the cities several times a week. Year-round, buses make the 7-8 hour trip just as often.

Khustain Nuruu Nature Reserve

The Khustain Nuruu Nature Reserve was established in 1993 to preserve Mongolia's wild takhi horses and the steppe environment in which they live. The takhi is probably the most recognised and successful symbol of Mongolia's diverse and unique wildlife. Also known as Przewalski's horse (named after the Pole who first took an interest in them), the takhi used to roam the countryside in great herds. In the 1960s they almost became extinct because poachers killed them for meat, and because development and livestock overgrazing reduced their fodder. In the early 1990s, with assistance from international environmental groups, many takhi were reintroduced into specially protected areas in the 90,000ha (222,300acre) Khustain Nuruu and in the south Gobi. About 200 now live in this park or in the wild.

The nature reserve is about 100km (62mi) south-west of Ulaan Baatar. It's easiest to start your trip to Khustain from Zuunmod, 40km (25mi) south of Ulaan Baatar. There are daily buses, minibuses and shared taxis to Zuunmod from Ulaan Baatar. You'll need a jeep to reach the reserve from Zuunmod.

Khövsgöl Nuur

Try to imagine a 2760 sq km (1080 sq mi) alpine lake, with water so pure you can drink it. Then add dozens of 2000m (6560ft) mountains, thick pine forests and lush meadows with grazing yaks and horses, and you have a vague impression of Khövsgöl Nuur, Mongolia's top scenic heartstopper. This is the deepest lake in Central Asia, and the world's 14th largest source of fresh water. Situated along the border with Russia, the lake is sacred to local Mongolians, who refer to it as 'mother'. It's full of fish and the area is home to sheep, ibex, bear and moose, as well as over 200 species of birds. There are numerous caves around the lake, though they're hard to find without a guide. Three separate peoples live in the area: Darkhad Mongols, Buryats and Tsaatan.

An amazing 90 rivers flow into the lake, but only a single river flows out - the Egiin Gol, which ultimately reaches Lake Baikal in Siberia. Khövsgöl Nuur freezes in winter, allowing huge trucks carrying fuel to cross from Siberia. Visitors can kayak on the lake when it unfreezes, and hike or ride horses (or yakback) around it.

The southern boundary of Khövsgöl Nuur is about 775km (480mi) north-west of Ulaan Baatar and is reachable by occasional plane, bus or your own jeep. The best time to visit is in spring (around April and May), though. It's still very cold at this time and the lake may be frozen. The summer (July and August) is warmer but more crowded. Permits are required to visit the lake. They're available on the main road into Khövsgöl Nuur National Park, a few km before the southern entrance at the town of Khatgal.

Culture

The Mongolian way of life is nomadic and intimately connected with the ways of animals. Despite urbanisation, the traditions of the steppes live on. Even in the cities, most Mongolians continue to live in a ger, a large, white felt tent that can be moved easily and has a universal layout: the door always faces south; towards the back and a little to the west is the place of honour set aside for guests; the back of the ger, the khoimor, is the place for elders and most treasured possessions; and on the back wall is the family altar, with Buddhist images, family photos and suitcases. Get a local to explain the dozens of traditional, religious and superstitious rules and customs associated with gers.

Mongolians have always taken wholeheartedly to Tibetan Buddhism and the links between Mongolia and Tibet are old and deep. Once in a lifetime, every devout Buddhist Mongolian tries to reach the holy city of Lhasa; the Tibetans in turn have relied on various Mongolian tribes to sustain their power. In Mongolia at the time of the communist takeover in 1921, there were 110,000 lamas (monks) living in about 700 monasteries. Beginning in the 1930s, thousands of monks were arrested, sent to Siberian labour camps and never heard from again. Monasteries were closed and ransacked and all religious worship and ceremonies outlawed. Not until 1990 was freedom of religion restored. Since then, there's been a phenomenal revival of Buddhism (and other religions). Monasteries have reopened, and even some ex-Communist Party officials have become lamas. Monasteries and temples (süm) always have Tibetan names. There's a significant minority of Sunni Muslims in the far western regions of Mongolia, most of whom are ethnic Kazaks.

Mongolia's paintings, music and literature are dominated by Tibetan Buddhism and nomadism. Tsam dances are performed to exorcise evil spirits and are influenced by nomadism and Shamanism. Outlawed during communism, they're beginning to be performed again. Traditional music involves a wide range of instruments and singing styles. In Mongolian khoomi singing, carefully trained male voices produce harmonic overtones from deep in the throat, releasing several notes at once. Traditional music and dance performances aren't complete without a touch of contortionism, an ancient Mongolian tradition.

Mongolian, the official language, is a member of the Ural-Altaic family of languages, which includes Finnish, Turkish, Kazak, Uzbek and Korean. Since 1944, the Russian Cyrillic alphabet has been used to write Mongolian. The country has produced a huge literature, almost none of which is known to speakers of European languages. Only recently have scholars translated the most important text of all - Mongol-un Nigucha Tobchiyan (The Secret History of the Mongols) - which celebrates Mongolia's days of greatness.

An old Mongolian saying goes something like: 'Breakfast, keep for yourself; lunch, share with your friends; dinner, give to your enemies'. The biggest and most important meals for Mongolians are breakfast and lunch, which will usually consist of boiled mutton with lots of fat and flour and maybe some dairy products or rice. The Kazaks in western Mongolia add variety to their diet with horse meat. The Mongolians are big tea drinkers and the classic drink is süütei tsai (salty tea). Men who refuse to drink arkhi (vodka) are considered wimps, while herders make their own unique home brew airag, which is fermented horse's milk with an alcoholic content of about 3%. Many Mongolians distill it further to produce shimiin arkhi, which boosts the alcohol content to around 12%.

Environment

Mongolia is a huge, landlocked country about three times the size of France, squashed between China and Russia. It was immeasurably bigger during the period of Mongol conquest under Genghis Khan and Kublai Khan. Until the 20th century Mongolia was twice its present size and included a large chunk of Siberia and Inner Mongolia (now controlled by China).

Mongolia is one of the highest countries in the world, with an average elevation of 1580m (5180ft). Its highest mountains are in the far west. The Mongol Altai Nuruu are permanently snowcapped, and their highest peak, Tavanbogd Uul (4370m/14,350ft), has a magnificent glacier that towers over Mongolia, Russia and China. Between the peaks are stark deserts where rain almost never falls. Elsewhere, Mongolia has numerous saltwater and freshwater lakes, the largest of which is the Khövsgöl Nuur, which contains two per cent of the world's fresh water.

The southern third of Mongolia is dominated by the Gobi Desert. Although barren looking, it has enough grass to support scattered herds of sheep, goats and camels. Much of the rest of Mongolia is grassland, home to Mongolia's famed takhi horses, which Genghis Khan used so successfully in his wars of conquest.